Hardware Independent, Linux Can Support 100s of Users Concurrently Running Different Programs.

Operating system based on the Linux kernel

Ubuntu, ane of the most popular desktop Linux distributions

A Linux distribution (often abbreviated equally distro) is an operating system fabricated from a software collection that includes the Linux kernel and, oft, a package management organization. Linux users commonly obtain their operating system by downloading ane of the Linux distributions, which are bachelor for a wide variety of systems ranging from embedded devices (for instance, OpenWrt) and personal computers (for example, Linux Mint) to powerful supercomputers (for example, Rocks Cluster Distribution).

A typical Linux distribution comprises a Linux kernel, GNU tools and libraries, additional software, documentation, a window system (the nigh common beingness the Ten Window Organization, or, more recently, Wayland), a window manager, and a desktop environment.

Most of the included software is gratuitous and open-source software fabricated bachelor both as compiled binaries and in source code form, assuasive modifications to the original software. Usually, Linux distributions optionally include some proprietary software that may not be available in source lawmaking grade, such as binary blobs required for some device drivers.^[1]

A Linux distribution may too be described as a detail assortment of application and utility software (various GNU tools and libraries, for example), packaged together with the Linux kernel in such a way that its capabilities run into the needs of many users.^[ii] The software is usually adapted to the distribution and and so packaged into software packages past the distribution's maintainers. The software packages are available online in repositories, which are storage locations usually distributed around the world.^[iii] ^[four] Beside gum components, such every bit the distribution installers (for example, Debian-Installer and Anaconda) or the package management systems, in that location are only very few packages that are originally written from the ground up by the maintainers of a Linux distribution.

Well-nigh k Linux distributions exist.^[5] ^[six] Because of the huge availability of software, distributions accept taken a wide diverseness of forms, including those suitable for use on desktops, servers, laptops, netbooks, mobile phones and tablets,^[7] ^[eight] every bit well as minimal environments typically for utilize in embedded systems.^[9] ^[10] There are commercially backed distributions, such as Fedora Linux (Ruby Hat), openSUSE (SUSE) and Ubuntu (Canonical Ltd.), and entirely community-driven distributions, such as Debian, Slackware, Gentoo and Arch Linux. Well-nigh distributions come ready to use and pre-compiled for a specific teaching set, while some distributions (such as Gentoo) are distributed mostly in source code form and compiled locally during installation.^[xi]

History [edit]

Timeline of the evolution of principal Linux distributions^[12]

Linus Torvalds developed the Linux kernel and distributed its kickoff version, 0.01, in 1991. Linux was initially distributed as source code merely, and subsequently as a pair of downloadable floppy disk images – one bootable and containing the Linux kernel itself, and the other with a set of GNU utilities and tools for setting upwards a file system. Since the installation procedure was complicated, especially in the face of growing amounts of available software, distributions sprang up to simplify this.^[13]

Early distributions included the following:

H. J. Lu's "Kick-root", the same disk image pair with the kernel and the absolute minimal tools to go started, in late 1991^[14]
MCC Interim Linux, which was made available to the public for download in February 1992
Softlanding Linux System (SLS), released in 1992, was the almost comprehensive distribution for a short fourth dimension, including the X Window System
Yggdrasil Linux/GNU/X, a commercial distribution outset released in Dec 1992

The ii oldest and still agile distribution projects started in 1993. The SLS distribution was non well maintained, so in July 1993 a new distribution, called Slackware and based on SLS, was released by Patrick Volkerding.^[fifteen] Also dissatisfied with SLS, Ian Murdock set up to create a costless distribution by founding Debian, which had its starting time release in December 1993.^[16]

Users were attracted to Linux distributions as alternatives to the DOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems on IBM PC compatible computers, Mac Bone on the Apple Macintosh, and proprietary versions of Unix. Most early adopters were familiar with Unix from work or school. They embraced Linux distributions for their depression (if whatsoever) cost, and availability of the source code for most or all of the software included.

As of 2017, Linux has get more popular in server and embedded devices markets than in the desktop market. For case, Linux is used on over fifty% of web servers,^[17] whereas its desktop market share is nearly 3.vii%.^[18]

Components [edit]

A Linux distribution is usually built around a parcel direction system, which puts together the Linux kernel, costless and open up-source software, and occasionally some proprietary software.

Many Linux distributions provide an installation organization akin to that provided with other modern operating systems. On the other paw, some distributions, including Gentoo Linux, provide but the binaries of a bones kernel, compilation tools, and an installer; the installer compiles all the requested software for the specific architecture of the user'due south reckoner, using these tools and the provided source code.

Package management [edit]

Distributions are ordinarily segmented into packages. Each package contains a specific awarding or service. Examples of packages are a library for handling the PNG image format, a collection of fonts or a spider web browser.

The package is typically provided as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages handled by a package management organization (PMS) rather than a simple file archiver. Each package intended for such a PMS contains meta-data such as a package description, version, and "dependencies". The package management system can evaluate this meta-data to permit package searches, to perform an automatic upgrade to a newer version, to check that all dependencies of a packet are fulfilled, and/or to fulfill them automatically.

Although Linux distributions typically contain much more software than proprietary operating systems, information technology is normal for local administrators to too install software not included in the distribution. An example would be a newer version of a software application than that supplied with a distribution, or an alternative to that chosen by the distribution (for instance, KDE Plasma Workspaces rather than GNOME or vice versa for the user interface layer). If the additional software is distributed in source-only form, this approach requires local compilation. Nonetheless, if additional software is locally added, the "state" of the local organization may fall out of synchronization with the state of the packet manager'south database. If and so, the local administrator will be required to take additional measures to ensure the entire system is kept up to appointment. The package director may no longer be able to do and so automatically.

Most distributions install packages, including the kernel and other core operating arrangement components, in a predetermined configuration. Few now require or even permit configuration adjustments at first install time. This makes installation less daunting, especially for new users, merely is non ever adequate. For specific requirements, much software must exist carefully configured to be useful, to work correctly with other software, or to be secure, and local administrators are often obliged to spend time reviewing and reconfiguring assorted software.

Some distributions go to considerable lengths to specifically adjust and customize most or all of the software included in the distribution. Non all do so. Some distributions provide configuration tools to assist in this process.

Past replacing everything provided in a distribution, an administrator may achieve a "distribution-less" country: everything was retrieved, compiled, configured, and installed locally. It is possible to build such a system from scratch, avoiding a distribution altogether. One needs a fashion to generate the first binaries until the system is self-hosting. This can exist done via compilation on another system capable of building binaries for the intended target (peradventure past cross-compilation). For example, run into Linux From Scratch.

Types and trends [edit]

In broad terms, Linux distributions may be:

Commercial or non-commercial
Designed for enterprise users, power users, or for dwelling users
Supported on multiple types of hardware, or platform-specific, even to the extent of certification by the platform vendor
Designed for servers, desktops, or embedded devices
General purpose or highly specialized toward specific machine functionalities (e.g. firewalls, network routers, and computer clusters)
Targeted at specific user groups, for instance through language internationalization and localization, or through inclusion of many music production or scientific computing packages
Built primarily for security, usability, portability, or comprehensiveness
Standard release or rolling release, meet beneath.

The variety of Linux distributions is due to technical, organizational, and philosophical variation among vendors and users. The permissive licensing of complimentary software ways that users with sufficient knowledge and interest can customize any existing distribution, or design one to arrange their own needs.

Rolling distributions [edit]

Rolling Linux distributions are kept updated using small and frequent updates. The terms partially rolling and partly rolling (forth with synonyms semi-rolling and half-rolling), fully rolling, truly rolling and optionally rolling are sometimes used past software developers and users.^[nineteen] ^[20] ^[21] ^[22] ^[23] ^[24]

Repositories of rolling distributions normally incorporate very recent software releases – oftentimes the latest stable software releases available.^{[ citation needed ]} They have pseudo-releases and installation media that are only a snapshot of the software distribution at the time of the release of the installation paradigm. Typically, a rolling release operating organisation installed from an older installation medium can be fully updated post-installation to a electric current country.^{[ citation needed ]}

Depending on the use example, there tin be pros and cons to both standard release and rolling release software development methodologies.^[25]

In terms of the software evolution procedure, standard releases require pregnant development endeavour existence spent on keeping old versions up to date due to propagating bug fixes back to the newest branch, versus focusing more on the newest evolution branch. As well, different rolling releases, standard releases require more than one lawmaking branch to be developed and maintained, which increases the software evolution and software maintenance workload of the software developers and software maintainers.

On the other hand, software features and technology planning are easier in standard releases due to a amend understanding of upcoming features in the adjacent version(southward). Software release cycles can likewise be synchronized with those of major upstream software projects, such as desktop environments.

As far as the user experience, standard releases are oft viewed as more stable and bug-free since software conflicts can be more easily addressed and the software stack more thoroughly tested and evaluated, during the software development bike.^[25] ^[26] For this reason, they tend to be the preferred choice in enterprise environments and mission-critical tasks.^[25]

However, rolling releases offer more current software which can too provide increased stability and fewer software bugs along with the boosted benefits of new features, greater functionality, faster running speeds, and improved system and application security. Regarding software security, the rolling release model can have advantages in timely security updates, fixing system or application security bugs and vulnerabilities, that standard releases may take to wait till the next release for or patch in various versions. In a rolling release distribution, where the user has chosen to run it as a highly dynamic system, the constant flux of software packages can introduce new unintended vulnerabilities.^[25]

Installation-free distributions (live CD/USB) [edit]

A "live" distribution is a Linux distribution that can be booted from removable storage media such as optical discs or USB flash drives, instead of being installed on and booted from a hard disk. The portability of installation-free distributions makes them advantageous for applications such every bit demonstrations, borrowing someone else'southward estimator, rescue operations, or as installation media for a standard distribution.

When the operating system is booted from a read-only medium such as a CD or DVD, whatever user information that needs to exist retained between sessions cannot be stored on the boot device but must be written to another storage device, such as a USB wink drive or a hard disk.^[27]

Many Linux distributions provide a "alive" grade in addition to their conventional course, which is a network-based or removable-media prototype intended to be used only for installation; such distributions include SUSE, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, MEPIS and Fedora Linux. Some distributions, including Knoppix, Puppy Linux, Devil-Linux, SuperGamer, SliTaz GNU/Linux and dyne:bolic, are designed primarily for live employ. Additionally, some minimal distributions can be run directly from as little space as one floppy deejay without the demand to modify the contents of the organisation'due south hard disk drive drive.^[28]

Examples [edit]

The website DistroWatch lists many Linux distributions, and displays some of the ones that accept the virtually spider web traffic on the site. The Wikimedia Foundation released an assay of the browser User Agents of visitors to WMF websites until 2015, which includes details of the nearly popular Operating System identifiers, including some Linux distributions.^[29] Many of the pop distributions are listed below.

Widely used GNU-based or GNU-compatible distributions [edit]

Debian, a non-commercial distribution and 1 of the primeval, maintained by a volunteer developer customs with a strong delivery to gratis software principles and democratic project management.
- Knoppix, the starting time Live CD distribution to run completely from removable media without installation to a hard disk drive, derived from Debian.
- Linux Mint Debian Edition (LMDE) uses Debian packages directly (rather than Ubuntu'due south)
- Ubuntu, a desktop and server distribution derived from Debian, maintained by British company Approved Ltd.
  - There are several distributions based on Ubuntu that mainly replace the GNOME stock desktop surroundings, similar: Kubuntu based on KDE, Lubuntu based on LXQT, Xubuntu based on XFCE, Ubuntu MATE based on MATE, Ubuntu Budgie based on Budgie. Other official forks have specific uses similar: Ubuntu Kylin for Chinese-speaking users, or Ubuntu Studio for media content creators.
  - Linux Mint, a distribution based on and compatible with Ubuntu. Supports multiple desktop environments, among others GNOME Shell fork Cinnamon and GNOME two fork MATE.
Fedora Linux, a community distribution sponsored by American company Red Hat and the successor to the company'south previous offering, Carmine Lid Linux. It aims to exist a technology testbed for Red Lid'southward commercial Linux offer, where new open-source software is prototyped, adult, and tested in a communal setting earlier maturing into Red Lid Enterprise Linux.
- Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), a derivative of Fedora Linux, maintained and commercially supported by Crimson Hat. It seeks to provide tested, secure, and stable Linux server and workstation back up to businesses.
  - CentOS, a distribution derived from the same sources used by Cherry Hat, maintained past a defended volunteer community of developers with both 100% Red Hat-compatible versions and an upgraded version that is not always 100% upstream compatible.
  - Oracle Linux, which is a derivative of Cerise Hat Enterprise Linux, maintained and commercially supported by Oracle
Mandriva Linux was a Red Chapeau Linux derivative popular in several European countries and Brazil, backed by the French company of the aforementioned proper name. After the company went broke, it was superseded by OpenMandriva Threescore,^[xxx] ^[31] although a number of derivatives at present take a larger user base.
- Mageia, a community fork of Mandriva Linux created in 2010^[31]
- PCLinuxOS, a derivative of Mandriva, which grew from a group of packages into a community-spawned desktop distribution
openSUSE, a community distribution mainly sponsored by German visitor SUSE.
- SUSE Linux Enterprise, derived from openSUSE, maintained and commercially supported by SUSE
Arch Linux, a rolling release distribution targeted at experienced Linux users and maintained by a volunteer customs, offers official binary packages and a wide range of unofficial user-submitted source packages. Packages are normally divers by a single PKGBUILD text file.
- Manjaro Linux, a derivative of Arch Linux that includes a graphical installer and other ease-of-use features for less experienced Linux users.
Gentoo, a distribution targeted at power users, known for its FreeBSD Ports-like automated system for compiling applications from source code
Slackware, created in 1993, one of the start Linux distributions and among the earliest withal maintained, committed to remain highly Unix-like and easily modifiable past stop users^[32] ^{[ non-primary source needed ]}

Linux kernel based operating systems [edit]

Android, Google's commercial operating system based on Android OSP that runs on many devices such as smart phones, smart TVs, fix-top boxes.
Chrome Bone, Google'due south commercial operating system based on Chromium OS that but runs on Chromebooks, Chromeboxes and tablet computers. Similar Android, information technology has the Google Play Store and other Google apps. Support for applications that require GNU compatibility is available through a virtual automobile called Crostini and referred to by Google as Linux support, see Chromebook#Integration with Linux.

Whether the above operating systems count as a "Linux distribution" is a controversial topic. They utilise the Linux kernel, so the Linux Foundation^[33] and Chris DiBona,^[34] Google's open-source chief, agree that Android is a Linux distribution; others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, disagree by noting the lack of back up for many GNU tools in Android, including glibc.^[35]

Other Linux kernel based operating systems include Cyanogenmod, its fork LineageOS, Android-x86 and recently Tizen, Mer/Sailfish OS and KaiOS.

Lightweight distributions [edit]

Lightweight Linux distributions are those that accept been designed with support for older hardware in mind, allowing older hardware to however exist used productively, or, for maximum possible speed in newer hardware by leaving more resources available for utilise past applications. Examples include Tiny Core Linux, Puppy Linux and Slitaz.

Niche distributions [edit]

Other distributions target specific niches, such as:

Routers – for example, targeted by the tiny embedded router distribution OpenWrt
Internet of things – for example, targeted by Ubuntu Core^[36]
Dwelling house theater PCs – for instance, targeted by KnoppMyth, Kodi (former XBMC) and Mythbuntu
Specific platforms – for example, Raspberry Pi OS targets the Raspberry Pi platform
Education – examples are Edubuntu and Karoshi, server systems based on PCLinuxOS
Scientific figurer servers and workstations – for instance, targeted by Scientific Linux
Digital audio workstations for music production – for example, targeted past Ubuntu Studio
Estimator Security, digital forensics and penetration testing – examples are Kali Linux and Parrot Security Os
Privacy and anonymity – for example, targeted by Tails, Whonix, Qubes, or FreedomBox
Offline use – for case, Endless Bone
Microsoft's Azure Sphere

Interdistribution issues [edit]

The Free Standards Grouping is an system formed by major software and hardware vendors that aims to amend interoperability between different distributions. Among their proposed standards are the Linux Standard Base of operations, which defines a mutual ABI and packaging organisation for Linux, and the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard which recommends a standard filenaming chart, notably the basic directory names found on the root of the tree of any Linux filesystem. Those standards, however, run into express use, even amid the distributions developed by members of the organization.^{[ citation needed ]}

The variety of Linux distributions ways that non all software runs on all distributions, depending on what libraries and other system attributes are required. Packaged software and software repositories are usually specific to a particular distribution, though cross-installation is sometimes possible on closely related distributions.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Tools for choosing a distribution [edit]

The procedure of constantly switching between distributions is frequently referred to as "distro hopping".^[37] Virtual machines such as VirtualBox and VMware Workstation virtualize hardware assuasive users to test live media on a virtual machine. Some websites similar DistroWatch offer lists of distributions, and link to screenshots of operating systems as a way to go a first impression of various distributions.

There are tools bachelor to help people select an appropriate distribution, such as several versions of the Linux Distribution Chooser,^[38] and the universal package search tool whohas.^[39] There are easy ways to try out several Linux distributions before deciding on ane: Multi Distro is a Alive CD that contains nine space-saving distributions.^[40]

Installation [edit]

There are several ways to install a Linux distribution. The near common method of installing Linux is by booting from a live USB memory stick, which can be created by using a USB paradigm writer application and the ISO image, which can be downloaded from the various Linux distribution websites. DVD disks, CD disks, network installations and fifty-fifty other hard drives can also be used every bit "installation media".^[41]

In the 1990s Linux distributions were installed using sets of floppies but this has been abandoned by all major distributions. Past the 2000s many distributions offered CD and DVD sets with the vital packages on the first disc and less important packages on later on ones. Some distributions, such as Debian also enabled installation over a network after booting from either a set up of floppies or a CD with only a small corporeality of data on it.^[42]

New users tend to brainstorm by partitioning a hard bulldoze in order to proceed their previously installed operating arrangement. The Linux distribution can then be installed on its own split up partitioning without affecting previously saved data.^[43]

In a Live CD setup, the figurer boots the entire operating system from CD without first installing it on the computer'due south hd. Many distributions have a Live CD installer, where the computer boots the operating system from the disk, and it tin then be installed on the reckoner's difficult disk, providing a seamless transition from the OS running from the CD to the OS running from the hard disk.

Both servers and personal computers that come with Linux already installed are available from vendors including Hewlett-Packard, Dell and System76.

On embedded devices, Linux is typically held in the device's firmware and may or may not be consumer-attainable.

Anaconda, ane of the more pop installers, is used by Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Fedora (which uses the Fedora Media Writer) and other distributions to simplify the installation process. Debian, Ubuntu and many others employ Debian-Installer.

Installation via an existing operating organisation [edit]

Some distributions let the user install Linux on top of their current system, such as WinLinux or coLinux. Linux is installed to the Windows hd partition, and can be started from inside Windows itself.

Virtual machines (such equally VirtualBox or VMware) also make it possible for Linux to be run inside another Os. The VM software simulates a separate figurer onto which the Linux system is installed. Afterward installation, the virtual machine can be booted as if it were an contained calculator.

Diverse tools are as well available to perform full dual-kick installations from existing platforms without a CD, most notably:

The (at present deprecated) Wubi installer, which allows Windows users to download and install Ubuntu or its derivatives into a FAT32 or an NTFS segmentation without an installation CD, assuasive users to easily dual kick between either operating system on the aforementioned hard drive without losing data. Replaced past Ubiquity.
Win32-loader, which is in the procedure of being integrated in official Debian CDs/DVDs, and allows Windows users to install Debian without a CD, though it performs a network installation and thereby requires repartitioning^[44]
UNetbootin, which allows Windows and Linux users to perform similar no-CD network installations for a wide variety of Linux distributions and additionally provides live USB cosmos support

Proprietary software [edit]

Some specific proprietary software products are not available in whatever form for Linux. As of September 2015, the Steam gaming service has 1,500 games available on Linux, compared to 2,323 games for Mac and 6,500 Windows games.^[45] ^[46] ^[47] Emulation and API-translation projects like Vino and CrossOver make it possible to run non-Linux-based software on Linux systems, either past emulating a proprietary operating system or past translating proprietary API calls (e.g., calls to Microsoft's Win32 or DirectX APIs) into native Linux API calls. A virtual auto tin can also exist used to run a proprietary Bone (like Microsoft Windows) on top of Linux.

OEM contracts [edit]

Computer hardware is normally sold with an operating system other than Linux already installed past the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). In the instance of IBM PC compatibles the OS is normally Microsoft Windows; in the case of Apple Macintosh computers information technology has always been a version of Apple's OS, currently macOS; Sun Microsystems sold SPARC hardware with the Solaris installed; video game consoles such as the Xbox, PlayStation, and Wii each have their own proprietary OS. This limits Linux'southward market share: consumers are unaware that an alternative exists, they must make a conscious endeavor to employ a different operating arrangement, and they must either perform the bodily installation themselves, or depend on support from a friend, relative, or computer professional.

Even so, it is possible to buy hardware with Linux already installed. Lenovo, Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Affordy,^[48] Purism, Pine64 and System76 all sell general-purpose Linux laptops.^[49] Custom-club PC manufacturers volition also build Linux systems, merely peradventure with the Windows key on the keyboard. Fixstars Solutions (formerly Terra Soft) sells Macintosh computers and PlayStation 3 consoles with Yellow Canis familiaris Linux installed.

Information technology is more mutual to find embedded devices sold with Linux as the default manufacturer-supported Bone, including the Linksys NSLU2 NAS device, TiVo's line of personal video recorders, and Linux-based cellphones (including Android smartphones), PDAs, and portable music players.

The electric current Microsoft Windows license lets the manufacturer make up one's mind the refund policy.^[50] With previous versions of Windows, it was possible to obtain a refund if the manufacturer failed to provide the refund by litigation in the small-scale claims courts.^[51] On February fifteen, 1999, a group of Linux users in Orange County, California held a "Windows Refund Day" protest in an endeavour to pressure Microsoft into issuing them refunds.^[52] In French republic, the Linuxfrench and AFUL (French speaking Libre Software Users' Association) organizations along with gratuitous software activist Roberto Di Cosmo started a "Windows Detax" move,^[53] which led to a 2006 petition confronting "racketiciels" (translation: Racketware) with 39,415 signatories and the DGCCRF branch of the French government filing several complaints confronting arranged software. On March 24, 2014, a new international petition was launched by AFUL on the Avaaz platform,^[54] translated into several languages and supported by many organizations effectually the world.

Statistics [edit]

In that location are no official figures on popularity, adoption, downloads or installed base of Linux distributions.

There are also no official figures for the total number of Linux systems,^[55] ^[56] partly due to the difficulty of quantifying the number of PCs running Linux (see Desktop Linux adoption), since many users download Linux distributions. Hence, the sales figures for Linux systems and commercial Linux distributions signal a much lower number of Linux systems and level of Linux adoption than is the case; this is mainly due to Linux being free and open-source software that can be downloaded free of accuse.^[55] ^[57] A Linux Counter Project had kept track of a running guesstimate of the number of Linux systems, just did not distinguish between rolling release and standard release distributions. It ceased operation in Baronial 2018, though a few related web log posts were created through Oct 2018.^[58]

Desktop usage statistical reports for particular Linux distributions have been collected and published since July 2014^[59] by the Linux Hardware Project.

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External links [edit]

The LWN.net Linux Distribution List – a categorized list with information about each entry
List of GNU/Linux distributions considered free past the Gratis Software Foundation
Google's approach to a large-calibration live upgrading between two widely different Linux distributions: presentation and text version, LinuxCon 2013, by Marc Merlin
Rolling release vs. fixed release Linux, ZDNet, Feb 3, 2015, by Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols
DistroTest - test any Linux Distro without installing